Argument Essay Standardized Testing - 925 Words

Standardized Testing: Good or Bad? If someone was to ask you â€Å"how do you define student achievement?† what would your answer be? Would you say student achievement is measured by state achievement tests? Or would you say that student achievement is too complex a subject to be objectively measured? There are many important skills students must be taught, and we need a way to effectively measure if they are in fact learning those skills. However, standardized tests cannot effectively show the learning of all students, especially those that are not good test takers. And of those skills that are tested, there are an endless number of arguably more important skills that aren’t being valued because they cannot be calculated. Furthermore,†¦show more content†¦Standardized tests do not give us a complete and direct measure of student achievement because they often only measure the goals of education(Harris). And while teachers and administration are forced to increase preparation for these tests, im portant -arguably more important - skills are being overlooked. Here are some attributes that standardized tests do not even try to cover: creativity, motivation, persistence, curiosity, reliability, critical thinking, self-awareness, leadership, civic-mindedness, empathy, courage, compassion, sense of beauty and wonder, honesty and integrity. Surely these are all â€Å"achievements† that students should be experiencing, so why don’t schools these as well as academic goals? Rochelle Gutià ©rrez, a member of The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics says Achievement—all the outcomes that students and teachers attain. Achievement is more than test scores but also includes class participation, students course-taking patterns, and teachers professional development patterns(Harris). These are all qualities that standardized tests cannot measure. Those that support standardized testing in schools site the fact that high school students who were required to pass a standardized test for a school program were more likely to talk to their parents and peers about schoolwork (Walberg). They also found thatShow MoreRelatedStandardized Testing And Its Impact On The Classroom1633 Words   |  7 Pagessomething offensive. Microaggressions are even apparent in standardized testing and academia as test writers and teachers can unintentionally degrade students with a seemingly innocent statement. Standardized tests are allegedly supposed to test student’s knowledge of what they have learned or previously known. The tests also reflect the academic progress of the school to determine the quality of education that the school provides. Standardized tests seem to be an unbiased way of determining skill, butRead MoreThe Shortcomings of Standardized Testing1636 Words   |  7 PagesSince the U.S. Congress passed the No Child Left Behind program, standardized testing has become the norm for American schools. Under this system, each child attending a school is required to take a standardized test at specific grade points to assess their level of comprehension. Parents, scholars and all stakeholders involved take part in constant discussions over its effectiveness in evaluating students’ comprehension, teachers’ competency and the effects of the test on the education system. ThoughRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Standardized Testing1458 Words   |  6 PagesSAT or ACT. The ACT and SAT are both standardized test used by colleges to determine the knowledge of a student and predict what their performance will be in their first year of college. An immense amount of pressure is put on student to receive certain scores in order to obtain scholarships and admission into college. Even just one point on a student’s score can determine if they will be accepted into their dream college. However, the results from standardized tests, such as the ACT and SAT, areRead MoreThe Importance Of Standardized Testing In Education1140 Words   |  5 PagesThe standardized test has become the staple of the United States K12 education system. Students at all levels are routinely tested, and schools evaluated based on the scores. It’s easy to look at this as a necessary part of the system, a needed way of assessing both school and individual student performance to ensure quality across all schools. These tests are regarded as a tried-and true way of doing this, when in reality they are neither old nor accurate in assessment. I move in this essay thatRead MoreResearch Paper over Standardized Testing1330 Words   |  6 PagesCatherine Burgess 1 Burgess 1 Mrs. Edmonds English 3 AP 2/20/2013 Standardized Testing The current period of learning is being determined by standardized testing, and has become the main focus of many arguments within the education system. Students all over the United States are being subjected to standardized tests often throughout their years in school due to legislation that has been set by Government over the past several years. While there are many upsides to the reasonsRead More The Debate Over Standardized Testing Essay1287 Words   |  6 PagesIn classrooms all across America, students sit perched over their desks in the process of taking standardized tests. As the students take the tests, teachers pace nervously up and down the rows of their classroom, hoping and praying that their students can recall the information which they have presented. Some children sit relaxed at their desks, calmly filling in the bubbles and answering essay questions. These children are well prepared and equipped to handle their tests. Other children, howeverRead MoreAnalysis Of The Cartoon I Looked At My Cartoon ``976 Words   |  4 Pagesmultiple subliminal meanings that could be applied. One After further analyzation, I found that Kal’s most significant claims were about the â€Å"difficulty students face during standardized testing† but also about the way that â€Å"modern-day school systems are working to ensure the passing of their students in standardized testing while not preparing their students for higher-level tests such as college entrance and college-level exams.† (Rhetorical Analysis, Gabriela Brooks). When examining symbolismRead MoreStandardized Testing and Curriculum Standards Essay1188 Words   |  5 PagesStandardized Testing and Curriculum Standards It cannot be said that all assessments are unnecessary and academically limiting for students. If teachers are to know their students’ strengths and weaknesses, they must formulate a way in which to assess their knowledge. In order to create a curriculum adherent to the most specific needs of a teacher’s class, assessment must play a role when devising the course of action for the academics taught. This does not mean that all standardized testing isRead MoreDisadvantages Of Standardized Testing Essay1143 Words   |  5 PagesAdnanur Chowdhury Alex Kurian English 1301 9 November 2017 Disadvantage of Standardized testing system American Education has remained a work in growth for the earlier century. Standardized testing has been used to compare state, nation and school. The main focuses being tested as a worldwide measure are science, mathematics and reading. The impression behindhand statewide or national testing is mostly that all students are learning the similar stuffs at the same period so every student are on theRead MoreStandardized Testing Is A Crucial Part Of Today s Federal Education Structure Essay1378 Words   |  6 PagesStandardized testing is a crucial part of today’s federal education structure; one that is both highly supported and criticized at all levels. The main point of this roundtable, and the chosen excerpts from the authors on the subject, is to discern and debate both the necessity of and the role that multiple choice testing plays in teaching history. This subject is relevant to us as history teachers because it opens up the floor for discussions about the need to either continue, reform, or completely

Learning And Personal Growth For Students Of Poverty

Module 4 Application Activity: Instilling Change Please read Chapter 5 of Teaching with Poverty in Mind. This chapter provides suggestions for changes that school districts can make to enhance learning and personal growth for students of poverty. Please choose three action steps the chapter suggests, that you would like to see your district implement to help you reach your students of poverty. For each action step, explain how you would implement it successfully at the classroom level, and the positive outcomes you would expect to see in your students. ACTION STEP (and page #) HOW I WOULD IMPLEMENT IT POSITIVE OUTCOMES FOR STUDENTS OF POVERTY Page 111 - Pre-assess to determine students’ background knowledge It is crucial to†¦show more content†¦It was fascinating! This is a great site with multiple strategies for teachers to use along with checklists. http://www.stma.k12.mn.us/documents/DW/Q_Comp/FormativeAssessStrategies.pdf As teachers, it is important to front-load the information. When you do this, students are better prepared to engage in the conversations of the classroom, and be able to answer questions regarding the topic. The ultimate result is that your needier students to feel successful. Being flexible with your lesson plans is important, especially after gathering information from your classroom and having a firm understanding of what your students know. Having this information provides you with a clue as to what you need to spend time on, things that you can quickly touch on, how to group your students, what organizers you may need or word banks that you can use. If you find that some students are knowledgeable on the topic, they can be used as the teacher experts in the classrooms. The final part of this Action Step is to do a post-assessment. At this time you can ask the same questions as before or have them write 3 things they learned on a sticky note as an exit slip. Teachers can use these assessments to help students who continue to struggle, pinpoint students who learn in a different way, or even find students who have already mastered the objective and may be ready to beShow MoreRelatedThe Importance Of Poverty In Education1176 Words   |  5 PagesPoverty is a debilitating issue for many students who are in public schools in today’s society. Poverty is a crippling challenge that student’s and their parents have to deal with each day, it is a harsh reality that most of us do not understand, although we try to. Children from poverty are often lacking resources they desperately need in order to be a successful student. Parent’s who struggle with poverty are often unable to provide the attention their child needs, whether it be to their schoolworkRead MoreLow Income Studen ts And Academic Achievement1515 Words   |  7 Pagesn the introduction of this paper, I mentioned that low-income students tend to have decreased academic achievement. However, students living in poverty do not always fall privy to the generalizations that face them. At Walt Disney Magnet School, where I have the pleasure of working, sixty-six percent of students are low income, but sixty-eight percent of students meeting or exceeding the state standards (Illinois Report Card, 2015). I reflected on my own teaching experience at this school. In myRead MoreThe Educational Plan For Education837 Words   |  4 Pagesthe best learning environment within the school they operate; however, the teachers are the ones to implement the grand educational plan. In their journey to achieve excellence, the teachers must consider multiple factors that will have an effect on students’ psychological and social development. In addition, the issue of minorities is changing the dynamics of education. While student populations were never really homogeneous, the past couple of decades of exceptional growth in student diversityRead MoreThe Community Through Service Oriented Activities1464 Words   |  6 Pagessee where our students come from so that we can begin to foster relationships with the students and parents. As an educator, I invest countless hours before and after school tutoring students and parents on the Georgia Standards of Excellence. Parents and students have opportunities to schedule a time to get assistance in any content area. I am highly qualified to teach all subject areas except Science. However, I am very resourceful when it comes to helping our parents and students. I also volunteerRead MoreComponents Of Order For Schools1492 Words   |  6 PagesTableman and Herron (2004) suggested several components in order for schools to be successful if they had high poverty rates. First, high poverty schools will need to have strong leadership. The primary focus of the principal and leadership team in these schools should be on creating an instructional model that has as its core student learning and a school improvement plan that focuses attention on areas of weaknesses (Kannapel Clements, 2005). Second educators must have the opportunity to collaborateRead MoreProfessional Dev elopment For Blended Learning Essay1447 Words   |  6 PagesDevelopment for Blended Learning Danielle Sherfey, William Pollock, Brandi Miranda Columbus State University  Introduction The idea of every student fitting into one box is long gone in education. More and more schools and organizations are putting their efforts into providing individualized learning that will allow students to work at their own pace and achieve success. With this is the growing use of technology to achieve the goals of proficiency and to provide students with effective and engagingRead MorePoverty Of Poverty And Children1276 Words   |  6 PagesAmerica, poverty and children is an ongoing issue and is happening today more than ever. Poverty is affecting our children today by creating learning problems during school for them, it is also creating more health issues for children. Not only is poverty creating direct problems currently but it is also creating problems for the future by creating a poverty cycle. There are many reasons why a child would be in poverty, but there are also many solutions to fix child poverty. Child poverty is a macroeconomicsRead MoreHow Does Parental Involveme nt Impact Student Learning Essay997 Words   |  4 PagesEducators, school leaders, and community leaders in high poverty, rural school districts need to develop an understanding of the culture and norms associated with poverty and how they contribute to the declining parent involvement constraining the academic achievement of students. If educators and school leaders can gain an understanding of the culture of poverty and barriers preventing parent involvement through the lenses of the poverty theory, it can be a valuable resource tool to combat theRead MoreAnnotated Bibliography : Literacy As Foreign Aid704 Words   |  3 PagesOkey. Educating Children With Learning Disabilities In Africa. Learning Disabilities Research Practice (Wiley-Blackwell) 22.3 (2007): 196-201. Academic Search Complete. Web. 27 Sept. 2014. Abosi addresses the concern of children in African classrooms that are challenged with learning disorders and examines the diverse contributing factors such as: health issues, poverty, lack of school materials, and motivational issues, and how they interfere with the learning environment. His study examinesRead MoreChild Development And Family Studies Essay1670 Words   |  7 Pagesmaturity allows professionals to be able to make improvements that will enhance children’s growth throughout the years. Through extensive research Child Development and Family Studies professionals have been able to demonstrate how important a child’s surroundings are toward their development. Everything that children encounter in their lives, especially in the early years has an outcome on their personal growth and achievement. This empowering information gathered by Child Development and Family Studies

Themes Of Art Religion / Mythology And Worship - 1271 Words

One of the most popular reoccurring themes in art is Religion/Mythology and worship. For thousands of years, humans have used art as a tool to showcase their beliefs to the world. From an idol that can be filled with blood and used as a sacrifice to a god, to a ceiling painted with events telling the story of the Bible, humans have used art to recognize the religious beliefs they hold so dearly. Sometimes, an artist would use a religion or mythology they didn’t practice solely as the subject of their work, so they can retell the stories told that were passed down for centuries. This was very common during the Renaissance when the stories from Greek and Roman mythology were retold in paintings and sculptures. Often, certain religious†¦show more content†¦In the background of the painting, we can see soldiers in battle, who are covered by dark grey rain clouds, giving the areas surrounding David a darkness. However, David has sunlight gleaming on his body, almost workin g as if there were a spotlight on him. This signifies his holiness and importance in the Bible. In many pieces of Christian art, a holy figure is covered in holy light or has a halo on their head. David Slaying Goliath relates to another Christian themed painting learned in our class, Expulsion from the Garden of Eden. Both paintings themes are popular stories taken from the Old Testament of the Bible. The climax of the stories these paintings are based on are shown. In Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, Adam and Eve are being banished from the Garden of Eden. In David Slaying Goliath, David is shown preparing to decapitate the mighty Goliath. Mars and Venus, c 1599. Oil on copper by Dutch artist Cornelis van Haarlem. The main subjects of this piece are the god of war Mars and goddess of love Venus. In this piece, the two deities are preparing themselves with the help of maids and servants to have an affair. Venus is married to Vulcan, the god of fire, but falls in love with Mars. Venus is showed laying in her bed being showered with flowers, waiting for the god of war. Mars is being assisted with the removal of the final pieces of his clothing. The Greeks humanized their gods and goddesses, and both Mars and Venus look like regular people. TheShow MoreRelatedImpact Of Religion On Greek Theatre893 Words   |  4 Pages Religion had a very large impact on Greek theatre. Religion was related to many everyday life tasks in ancient Greece such as festivals, initiations, and oracles. Religion was a very important subject and was something they used in their everyday lives. This is why, in my opinion ,religion had a high i mpact on Greek theatre. â€Å" The religion of Greek people is an important aspect of the Greek culture.†(Religion in Greece Source:www.greeka.com) Greek religion was a form of polytheism, whichRead MoreGreek Mythology : Ancient Greece963 Words   |  4 Pageswonder about Ancient Greece the first thing that comes to their minds is Greek mythology; gods and goddesses that have helped shape many historical events. â€Å"In ancient Greece, stories about gods and goddesses and heroes and monsters were an important part of everyday life.† (â€Å"Greek Mythology.†) The civilization showed that numerous characters and stories helped shape Greeks. The beliefs the Greeks had with mythologies was they understood the meaning behind all the characters that are known todayRead MoreThe Discovery Of The Museum Curator1294 Words   |  6 PagesBecoming the museum curator is an important title, they pick and choose the 5% of the total art, the museum has to be viewed by the public. The curator mus t be wise and make exhibits that flow as well as get the point across to the visitors coming to see the museum. Curating this exhibit, I have chosen three works of ancient Greek art that will tell a story and inform visitors about three of the most well-known Greek gods. A statue of Zeus from the first A.D, a Kylix of Hades and Persephone, andRead MoreA Basic Overview of Paganism Essay examples1716 Words   |  7 PagesReligion is about creation, and for that reason religion should be about the earth. - Laurie Cabot. One might see hundreds of faces from different races, gender, and pop cultures. But behind each face is a brain, with spirit and personal beliefs, like religion. When many Americans believe that everyone is Christian or Catholic, some people practice an ancient religion. This religion, commonly known as the umbrella-term â€Å"Paganism† is back on the move with a contemporary feel. Paganism is an earth-basedRead MoreGreek Mythology : Ancient Mythology1630 Words   |  7 PagesGreek mythology denotes to the myths of the early Greeks, Greece gods, and mythical creatures. While pertaining to these legends and myths includes; to their Gods, the nature and heroes, tales of clashes, and of their adventures. It is also a brief on the origin and connotation of their cult, and the innumerable practices that remained shadowed by them. Myth is defined as; a traditional, typically historic story pertaining to mystic beings, descendants, or heroes that serve an essential kind in theRead MoreTime Capsules from the Renaissance and Baroque Time Periods Essay953 Words   |  4 Pagesthis time, people were rediscovering and studying Ancient Greeks. Their artwork reflected not only Ancient Greeks, but also the artist’s own interpretation of the Greek mythology. This painting also shows how artiest weren’t as focuses on making religious art, but started to base their artwork on other studies such as mythology. Lying underneath the painting The Birth of Venus was a lute. A lute is a stringed instrument that was played during the Renaissance time period, by plucking the stringsRead MoreDepiction of Cultural and Religious Beliefs in Artwork682 Words   |  3 PagesDepiction of cultural and religious beliefs have been an important element in many artworks. The newly formed Early Christian religion, the Roman culture, and the Greek culture are no exception to this occurrence. Though living close in proximity to each other, their views differed vastly, in respect to both religion and culture. Roman and Greek views indulged the â€Å"here and now†, while those views of the Early Christians centered on the â€Å"hereafter†. It is upon the examination of a few artworks takenRead MoreAncient Greece And Ancient Egypt Essay2265 Words   |  10 PagesRegardless of being under new rule, the ancient Egyptian culture and religion persisted because the people of Kush incorporated the two c ultures to strengthen the society. In fact, rulers and elites wore Egyptian clothing, followed Egyptian burial practices, and, most importantly, professed devotion to Egyptian gods. Both Greece and Egypt were very impacted by their religions and are still studied to this day as mythology. Both of their religions were based around the idea of polytheism and often their manyRead MoreAncient Greek God Museum Exhibit Essay1597 Words   |  7 PagesAncient Greek God Museum Exhibit The museum curator is an important title; they pick and choose 5% of the total art being viewed by the public. The curator must be wise, include art pieces that flow with the theme of the exhibit, as well as educates the visitor. Curating this exhibit, I have chosen three works of ancient Greek art that will inform visitors about three of the most well-known Greek gods. A slab from the Parthenon frieze of Zeus and Hera, a Kylix of Hades and Persephone, and the TriumphRead More History Of Music Essay2522 Words   |  11 Pagesreflected in the arts of a culture. It is the poets, the dreamers and artists who are the architects of the future; the ones who ‘build the world they want to live in, the ones who dream out loud’1. Music is an elaborate art form, tempered by the emotions of those who create it and as such the dreams, creations and inventions are partly the products - or at least artifacts - of the world around them. As such, the social, economic and technological changes in society reflect themselves in the arts of the time

Hindu Essay Example For Students

Hindu Essay In India there are six orthodox schools of philosophy which recognize the authority of the Vedas as divine revelation, and they generally function as pairs Nyaya and Vaishesika, Mimamsa and Vedanta, and Samkhya and Yoga. Those who did not recognize this authority were the Jains, Buddhists, and materialists. Even in India where spiritual ideas dominate the culture there were some who were skeptical of those ideals and held to a materialist view of the world; they were called Carvaka, and their doctrine that this world is all that exists is called Lokayata. The materialists did not believe in an afterlife and found sense perception to be the only source of knowledge, denying the validity of inference or general concepts. They focused on the senses and the four traditional elements of earth, water, fire, and air. Consciousness for the Carvaka is only a modification of these elements in the body. The soul is also identified with the body, and pleasure and pain are the central experiences of life, nature being indifferent to good and evil with virtue and vice being merely social conventions. This worldly philosophy naturally ignored the goal of liberation (moksha) or simply believed that death as the end of life and consciousness was a liberation. However, they also tended to neglect the value of virtue or justice (dharma), placing all of their attention on the worldly aims of pleasure (kama) and wealth or power (artha). Although Carvaka ideas are mentioned in some ancient writings, their own ancient writings were lost, and much of what we know of the early materialists is based on criticisms of other schools. However, a famous, ancient drama called The Rise of the Moon of Intellect (Prabodha-candrodaya) reveals some of the beliefs of this worldly movement. In this play Passion is personified and speaks to a materialist and one of his pupils. Passion laughs at ignorant fools, who imagine that spirit is different from the body and reaps a reward in a future existence. This is like expecting trees to grow in air and produce fruit. Has anyone seen the soul separate from the body? Does not life come from the configuration of the body? Those who believe otherwise deceive themselves and others. Their ancient teacher Brihaspati affirmed the importance of the senses, maintaining that sustenance and love are the objects of human life. For the materialists the Vedas are a cheat. If blessings are obtained through sacrifices and the victims ascend to heaven, why do not children sacrifice their parents? How can fasting, begging, penance, and exposure to the elements be compared to the ravishing embraces of women with large eyes and prominent breasts? The pleasures of life are no more to be avoided because they are mixed with pain than a prudent person would throw away unpeeled rice because it has a husk. Sacrifices, reciting the Vedas, and penance are merely ways that ignorant and weak men contrive to support themselves. Yet upon analysis it was often found that the materialists theory that no general inferences can be made contradicted their own views about the nature of the world. Nevertheless their hedonistic philosophy at times gave a humanistic criticism of the ethical contradictions of others. In the great epic Mahabharata a Carvaka is burned to death for preaching against the bloodshed of the great war and condemning Yudhishthira for killing thousands to regain his kingdom. They did criticize sacrifices and valued the arts as a means of pleasure. Hell they believed to be the pain experienced in this world, but all this ended in death. Like Epicureans they found that pleasure could be maximized and pain minimized by detachment (vairagya). Immortality was only found in the fame one leaves behind for noble deeds performed. Nyaya and VaishesikaThe Nyaya and Vaishesika schools are primarily analytic and are therefore more concerned with logic and epistemology than ethics. The word nyaya means that by which the mind is led to a conclusion. The Nyaya school formed about the fourth century BC with the Nyaya Sutras by Gautama. The first sentence declares that supreme happiness is attained by knowledge of the sixteen categories which are right knowledge, objects of knowledge, doubt, purpose, example, tenets, inference, confutation, ascertainment, discussion, sophistry, cavil, fallacy, quibble, futile rejoinder, and losing arguments. Knowledge comes from perception, inference, comparison, and verbal testimony. Objects of knowledge are self, body, sense organs, sense objects, intellect, mind, activity, defects, rebirth, fruit, pain, and release. The soul is distinct from the sense organs and the mind which it uses to make judgments with the aid of memory. Judgments and actions are transitory but produce karma, which causes the union of the soul with the body, the soul transmigrating from a dead body to another birth. Gautama recognized the soul as the cause of the body but also acknowledged parents and food as other causes as well. Ethical concerns can be found in the discussion of the defects and the means of liberation. Gautama mentioned three categories of defects as attachment, aversion, and misconception. Vatsyayana, who wrote the first commentary on the Nyaya Sutras in the 4th century CE, explained that attachment can come from lust, jealousy, avarice, greed, and covetousness; aversion from anger, envy, malice, hatred, and resentment; and misconception from wrong apprehension, suspicion, pride, and negligence. Gautama considered misconception the worst sin, because without it attachment and aversion do not occur. By fruit Gautama referred to what is produced by activity and defects. These results of action (karma) may occur immediately or after a long interval. Release is defined as the absolute deliverance from pain. Release does not occur though because of debts, afflictions, and activities. However, when knowledge is attained, wrong notions and defects disappear, removing pain and bringing about release. Since false concepts are the cause of the chain of events that leads to pain, correct knowledge is the solution. Even hatred of pain and attachment to pleasure can bind one. The activities of mind, speech, and body must be good and not bad but must also be performed without attachment. Selfishness is associated with false concepts, and virtuous actions emphasize the soul rather than the body and its senses. True knowledge comes from meditation, which is prepared for by good deeds. Gautama recommended practicing yoga in forests, caves, and on riverbanks. To attain final release the soul may be embellished by the restraints and observances of the internal discipline learned from yoga. Study and friendly discussion with those learned in knowledge is also suggested. The Vaishesika philosophy is considered the oldest of the six orthodox schools and may even be pre-Buddhist. The Vaishesika Sutras by Kanada were written shortly before Gautamas Nyaya Sutras. The word vishesa means particularity, and this philosophy emphasizes the significance of individuals. Vaishesika recognizes three objects of experience as having real objective existence, namely substance, quality, and activity, and three products of intellectual discrimination which are generality, particularity, and combination. The reality of the soul is inferred from the discernment that consciousness cannot be a property of the body, senses, or mind. However, the life of the souls knowing, feeling, and willing is only found where the body is. Each soul experiences the consequences of its own actions, resulting in the differences between individuals, from which the plurality of souls is inferred. Even liberated souls maintain unique characteristics in the Vaishesika philosophy. The Vaishesika Sutra begins with the idea that virtue (dharma) is the means by which prosperity and salvation are attained, but it acknowledges the authority of the Vedas as the word of God that leads to this prosperity and salvation. As with Nyaya the supreme good results from knowledge, in this case of the six predicables substance, quality, activity, generality, particularity, and combination. In addition to the four traditional elements of earth, water, fire, and air, they name ether (akasha), time, space, soul, and mind as the only other substances. One need not fall back on the scriptures to know the existence of the soul, because the expression of I makes its reality clear. The qualities are color, taste, smell, touch, numbers, size, separation, conjunction and disjunction, priority and posteriority, understanding, pleasure and pain, desire and aversion, and volition. Activity is going up or down, contracting, expanding, and motion. Action (karma) is opposed by its effect which is how it is neutralized. Individuals are only responsible for voluntary actions; actions from organic life are considered involuntary. Worldly good is attained by ceremonial piety, but spiritual value is found by insight. The highest pleasure of the wise is found in independence from all agencies involving memory, desire, and reflection, and this knowledge results from peacefulness of mind, contentment, and virtue. Pleasure and pain result from the contact between soul, senses, the mind, and objects. When the mind becomes steady in the soul through yoga, pain can be prevented. Liberation (moksha) is not having any conjunction with the body and no potential for a body so that rebirth cannot take place. The traditional character of this school can be seen from the actions recommended for achieving merit. Ablution, fast, abstinence (brahmacharya),residence in the family of the preceptor,life of retirement in the forest, sacrifice, gift,oblation, directions, constellations, seasons,and religious observances conduce to invisible fruit.1Progress comes from virtue (dharma), but even this has consequences which neutralize it; for ultimate release cannot occur until even virtue is eradicated in selfless insight. So long as one is dominated by desire and aversion, virtue and its opposite are stored up, preventing liberation. When one realizes that all objects that seem either attractive or repulsive are merely compounds of atoms, their power over one ceases. True knowledge of the soul dispels self-interest in universal awareness. Each soul reaps the harvest of its deeds in this life or a future one, but with liberation it becomes absolutely free. The awareness of the seer is the vision of perfection which results from virtue.Mimamsa and VedantaThe Mimamsa philosophy is also very ancient, and the Mimsama Sutra by Jaimini was written about the 4th century BC. This text begins with the subject of dharma, which the Vedas consider the means most conducive to the highest good. Dharma transcends sense perception, because the senses only perceive what exists in the present; dharma in the Mimamsa philosophy has a metaphysical reality that carries into the future. Same Sex Marriages EssayEvolution from the will down to specific elements modifies nature and emancipates each spirit. Just as one undertakes action in the world to release the desire for satisfaction, so does the unevolved function for the liberation of the spirit. Thus spirit is never really bound or liberated nor does it transmigrate; only nature in its manifold forms is bound, migrates, or is liberated. The pure spirit, resting like a spectator perceives nature which has ceased to be productive and by discriminating knowledge turns back from the dispositions. When virtue and other karma cease to function, the spirit of the individual remains invested with the body by past impressions; but when separation from the body comes, its purpose is fulfilled as it attains eternal and absolute independence. The practice of yoga in India is very ancient, probably even pre-Aryan. Yoga is mentioned in several Upanishads and its philosophy is described in the great epics, particularly in the Bhagavad-Gita portion of the Mahabharata. The classic text for what is called the royal (raja) yoga is Patanjalis Yoga Sutras, probably written in the second century BC, although scholarly estimates range from the fourth century BC to the fourth century CE. The word yoga has the same origin as the English word yoke and means union. In the Katha Upanishad the senses are to be controlled as spirited horses are by a yoke. The raja yoga tersely described by Patanjali as having eight limbs is considered the psychological yoga. The Yoga Sutras begin with the idea that yoga (union) is the control of the modifications of consciousness; this enables the seer to stand in ones own form instead of identifying with the modifications. The five modifications are knowledge (perception, inference, and testimony), error (ideas not formed from reality), imagination (ideas without objects), sleep, and memory (experienced objects). These are controlled by practice and detachment. Practice requires constant attention for a long time, and detachment comes from getting free of the desire for experiences. Mastery of this comes from the spirit overcoming the qualities. Meditation can be reasoning, discriminating, and joyful awareness of the unity of the universe and self or cessation by renunciation and constantly dissolving impressions, resulting in undifferentiated existence, bodilessness, absorption in the supreme, or faith, enthusiasm, memory, and wisdom. Intense practice brings the best results, or it may be achieved by surrendering to the Lord. The perfect spirit of the Lord is untouched by afflictions, actions, and their results; it is the infinite seed of omniscience beyond time, and its symbol is the sacred word. Constant practice of that brings cosmic consciousness and the absence of obstacles. The obstacles that distract consciousness are disease, laziness, indecision, apathy, lethargy, craving sense-pleasure, erroneous perception, lack of concentration, and unstable attention. These distractions are accompanied by sorrow, worry, restlessness, and irregular breathing. Cultivating the feelings of friendship, compassion, joy, and equanimity toward those who are happy, suffering, worthy, and unworthy purifies consciousness, as does breathing in and out. Subtle vision modifies the higher consciousness by bringing the mind stability, as does the transcendent inner light, the awareness that controls passions, the analytical knowledge of dreams and sleep, and concentration according to choice. The lessened modifications become transparent and transformed, and the memory is purified and empty so that objects shine without thought. The subtle elements become undefinable nature in the meditation with seed. Beyond discrimination the oversoul is blessed with direct truth, which is different from verbal inferences. This impression prevents all other impressions, and control of even this controls everything in seedless meditation. The practice of yoga and meditation is enhanced by discipline, self-study, and surrender to the Lord in order to remove obstacles such as ignorance, egoism, attachment, aversion, and clinging to life. Obstacles result in action patterns that cause suffering in this life and the next, as virtue and vice bear the fruits of pleasure and pain; but concentration overcomes their effects. Future suffering can be avoided if the perceiver does not identify with the perceived. Discriminating undisturbed intelligence removes ignorance and suffering by the absence of identity and the freedom of the perceiver. The practice of union proceeds through the eight steps of restraint, observances, posture, breath control, sublimation, attention, concentration, and meditation. The restraints are not injuring, lying, stealing, lusting, nor possessing and are called the universal great vows we have often seen before. The second step of observances involves cleanliness, contentment, discipline, self-study, and surrender to the Lord. Patanjali suggested that destructive instincts may be overcome by cultivating the opposites of greed, anger, or delusion. In confirming nonviolence the presence of hostility is relinquished. Not lying brings work and its fruits, not stealing riches, not lusting vigor, and from not possessing comes knowledge of past and future lives. Cleanliness brings protection of ones body, goodness purified becomes serenity, and single-mindedness conquers the senses. Being content gains happiness. Discipline perfects the senses and destroys impurities. By self-study one may commune with the divine ideal, and meditation is successfully identifying with the Lord. Stable and pleasant postures (asanas) release tension and transform thought. Regulating the inhalation and exhalation of the breath (pranayama) prepares the mind for attention. By withdrawing consciousness from its own objects the senses are sublimated (pratyahara) and under control. The last three steps of attention (dharana), concentration (dhyana), and meditation (samadhi) are the same as the last three steps of the Buddhas eightfold path. Attention is defined by Patanjali as the original focus of consciousness, concentration as continuing awareness there, and meditation as when that shines light alone in its own empty form. These three work as one in inner control leading to wisdom and are the psychological steps. As the control of destructive instincts and impressions evolves, the flow of consciousness becomes calm by habit, and oneness arises in meditation. As this oneness evolves, past and present become similar in the conscious awareness. Patanjali then described various psychic abilities that can be attained from the practice of yoga. Supernatural powers may come from birth, drugs, chanting, discipline, or meditation. Yet he warned that worldly powers are obstacles to meditation. Only the knowledge of discriminating between goodness and spirit brings omnipotence and omniscience, and only from detachment to that is the seed of bondage destroyed in freedom. The soul of the discriminating perceiver is completely detached from emotion and mind so that with serene discrimination the consciousness can move toward freedom. Finally the evolution of transforming qualities fulfills its purpose and stops, cognized as a distinct transformation. Patanjali concluded,This yoga text has been tremendously influential in India and beyond, and is in my opinion a very positive guide to spiritual liberation as well as being beneficial to ethical development.Bhagavad GitaThe Bhagavad-Gita, which means the Song of the Lord, was written bet ween the second century BC and the second century CE. It synthesized many ideas from the Samkhya philosophy and practice of yoga, but it is also claimed by Vedanta and Hindu philosophy in general as its greatest work on spirituality. The text is actually contained in Book 6 of the epic poem Mahabharata, which tells the story of the great civil war that may have occurred in India as early as about 1400 BC or as late as about 900. These stories will be discussed in the next chapter, but the dramatic context for the dialog between the warrior Arjuna and his charioteer Krishna is the beginning of the actual battle between the rival ruling families, the Kauruvas and Pandavas. The Bhagavad-Gita is narrated by the sage Sanjaya, who clairvoyantly perceives what is going on and relates it to the blind King Dhritarashtra. Krishna is an uncle and friend of the Pandavas, but remaining neutral he allowed one side to use his vassals in battle, while the Pandava Arjuna got to have him as charioteer although he would not fight himself. By the time this was written Krishna was considered an incarnation of the god Vishnu, the preserver, and he teaches Arjuna several kinds of yoga for achieving union with God. This is the earliest work that emphasized the religious worship of God through devotion to an avatar or incarnation of God which developed into the Vaishnavite faith in medieval Hinduism. The poem begins with Dhritarashtra asking Sanjaya what is happening not only on the field of Kuru but also on the field of dharma (virtue, duty). Sanjaya describes how both armies are arrayed against each other blowing their conch horns to show their readiness to fight. Then Arjuna asked Krishna to position his chariot between the two armies, and there he saw many of his relatives on the other side, causing him to feel faint and consider not fighting. Even though the others are killing, Arjuna does not think it would be worth it to do so, even for sovereignty of the three worlds, let alone an earthly kingdom. Evil would come to him, he says, if he should kill his relatives. How could this bring happiness? This family destruction is wrong and would destroy ancient family duties and bring on lawlessness, which would lead to corruption of the women and caste mixing. Why should he kill for greed of royal pleasures? It would be greater happiness for him to be killed unresisting and unarmed. Thus Arjunas mind was overcome by sorrow. Krishna, who is called the Lord, responds by upbraiding Arjuna for timidity and cowardiceWords/ Pages : 4,844 / 24