Statistical concepts essays

Statistical concepts essays Statistical concepts have literally thousands of applications. These include both the hard' sciences and social sciences but also fields such as political science. Statistics are so key to the nature of certain fields that most of them could not exist without concepts such as the The mean, median and mode are often used in political campaigns. These campaigns are designed to appeal to targeted demographics, which form the basis for blocks of voters. Presidential speeches are designed to specifically appeal to a hypothesized median' voter. Swing votes often represent a mode or block' of voters who can be expected to vote in a similar fashion. Where the political support of one's party members can be predicted with safety, the fate of elections always swings with popular opinion. If the opinion of the hypothetical median' citizen were not courted to, one of the two parties would eventually become marginalized. A concept like the Axis of Evil' or Lock Box' seems adolescent to university professors and political analysts, but speechwriters didn't have these people in mind when they created the concept; by definition, the mean IQ is 100. Political pundits see their voters in groups like Soccer Moms;' concerned mothers who vote in the interest of their families. On any given opinion, these groups constitute modes reflecting a certain Political campaigns use extensive population sampling in order to gather data. These often revolve around the outcome of polls conducted by the Gallup company. After a speech is made, questions will be designed to neutrally assess the opinion of those who listened to the speech. Gallup approaches a group with a large enough sample size to diminish the margin of error. They'll ask questions such as "what do you think of candidate Shwartzenegger's comments regarding the terminally ill" so as to assess ...

Free sample - Critical Analysis of the Role of United Nation. translation missing

Critical Analysis of the Role of United Nation. Critical Analysis of the Role of United NationCritical Analysis of the Role of United Nation as a Third Party in Conflict Management Introduction As stated in the Preamble of the United Nations (UN), UN is determined â€Å"to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind.†[1] Since its establishment in 1945, UN’s mission is to take part in conflict prevention in order to prevent or stop any forms of violence, either between states or internal conflicts. The UN has specialized programs and agencies tasked to prevent conflicts from spreading out by targeting not only the acts of violence, but the roots of these conflicts. These programs include United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR), the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR), and many others.[2] The UN successfully accomplished conflict management tasks in the late 1980s and early 1990s in Namibia, Nicaragua and El Salvador. In fact, an entire chapter of the Agenda for Peace of 1992 by the UN Secretary-General was devoted to conflict prevention. The report suggests that between the stages of conflict intensification and the policy actions which aim at ending them, a conceptual link must be created.   Conflict prevention and dispute escalation prevention are included here. Regulation of the spread of violence if it happens is also included. And it was in these policy responses’ last segment that paved the way for conflict management.[3] The Hutus’ militia and the Tutsis’ Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF): The Extremists A political conflict can occur between states, or within a state. It can be caused by various factors. A conflict can arise from political causes. It can also arise from ideological differences,[4] economic factors, ethnic or cultural causes,[5] social causes,[6] geographical issues,[7] and even psychological causes.[Burton] What happened in Rwanda was caused by an outcome of a political conflict between two groups that are attempting get monopolize the political power over the country. Conflict Management and the Rwanda Genocide Conflict management, according to Fred Tanner, Deputy Director of the Geneva Centre for Security Policy, is â€Å"an approach that established the conceptual ground for direct outside involvement to check escalating violence by using peaceful or even coercive means, if necessary.†[8] Aside from the incidents in Yugoslavia and Somalia, the Rwanda Genocide is one of the historical event which calls for the need to reassess the role of the United Nations in conflict prevention and conflict management. And this paper tries to discuss the episodes in the Rwanda Genocide that prompted even the UN to review its own concept on conflict management. The United Nations Assistance Mission of Rwanda It was the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) that the United Nations tasked to aid the implementation of the Arusha Peace Agreement. Signed in August 4, 1993 by the government of Rwanda and the RPF, the Arusha Accords were meant to end the Rwandan Civil War. Hence, UNAMIR’s task was to aid the peace process between the Rwanda government and the rebel RPF. [9] It was established by the Security Council Resolution 872 on October 5, 1992. The purpose of the UNAMIR is to ensure Kigali’s security, monitor the ceasefire agreement between the two opposing groups, put up an expanded demilitarized zone and demobilization procedures, monitor the security situation on the final period of the transitional government’s mandate until the election, assist with mine clearance and in coordination of humanitarian assistance activities and relief operations.[10] It was Jacques-Roger Booh-Booh of Cameroon and Lieutenant-General Romà ©o Dallaire as the head of the UNAMIR. Belgian soldiers make up about 400 members of the troops. Note that Belgium has colonized Rwanda in the past. In matters of peace-keeping processes, the UN normally bans the former colonial power from taking position. The Rwanda Government and the rebels appear to follow the Arusha Peace Agreement. Both sides appear to be steadfast at creating the transitional government before the 1993 ends. However, the events that followed delayed the establishment of a transitional government. After President Habyarimana was inaugurated on January 5, 1994, major disagreements came between the opposing groups. There were warnings sent to UN alarming the assembly of the genocide that was about to happen against the Tutsi minority and anti-tribalist Hutus. The warning came three months before the mass murder. However, UN ignored these warnings.[11] (The warning about the forthcoming genocide and the perpetrators came from General Romeo Dallaire himself, cabled to the UN Secretary-General at that time, Mr. Kofi Annan. General Dallaire asked UN permission for an immediate action to intervene against the mass slaughter planned by Hutu forces. But the general’s request was declined by the UN Department of Peacekeeping.[12]) This created confusion in the UNAMIR whether or not to use power. The orders issued by UN to UNAMIR were very limited. IN short, UNAMIR was rendered useless as the thousands of people are slaughtered. The UN failed to extend the UNAMIR’s mandate to protect the people of Rwanda from the genocide. The mission’s job was limited to evacuating foreign nationals from Rwanda.[13] In fact, the peace-keeping force deployed by UN at the end of 1993, which is supposed to aid in the implementation of the cease fire between the two opposing groups, received severe criticism. There are countries that did not agree to send stronger force. One of these countries was the United States, ally of Britain.[14] The United Nation’s failed mission: â€Å"The Report on the Independent Inquiry into the Actions of the United Nations During the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda† The council members of UN later acknowledged the failure of their mission to protect the peoples of Rwanda in a time where they mostly need it.[15] The UN even accepted the result of the independent inquiry lead by former Swedish Prime Minister Ingvar Carlsson on the actions taken by the UN in Rwanda. The report states UN’s failure to ignore the warnings about the genocide despite the evidences that the mass slaughter will indeed happen. According to the report, UN failed in the 1994 Rwanda Genocide in many ‘fundamental respects.’[16]   (The surprising thing was that no one in the international community anticipated the level of atrocity that happened in Rwanda.) With the evidence that was forwarded to UN regarding the organized mass murder that is going to happen, a contingency plan should have been made, as mandated by the Geneva Convention.[17] The report enumerates the reasons why UN failed: First, UN not only lacked the resources, but it also lacked the commitment to prevent the genocide from happening. The UNAMIR was also found to be not well planned in a way that it can respond to possible extremist act by either camp. The UNAMIR is also stated as a watered down version of the original plan by UN on the level of strength that will be deployed to Rwanda. [18] The inquiry points out that UN’s Center for Human Rights and DPKO did not do adequate political investigation and analysis during the tensions. This resulted to the inadequacy of UNAMIR’s mandate.[19] This is also why UN’s peace-force in Rwanda was harshly criticized by the international community. Other failures that the inquiry notes were the ‘implementation of the mandate itself’, ‘confusion over the rules of engagement’, ‘failure to respond to the genocide’, ‘inadequate resources and logistic’, and many others. The report lead by Carlsson has deemed the UN useless during the worst moment in that particular episode in Rwanda’s history. However, there surely are factors that prevented the UN to come up with an in-depth analysis of the information on political situation in Rwanda, if the vital information are at UN’s disposal. As we can see in the discussion that will follow, the UN is caught in situations where it even finds itself inadequate at some moments during the tension in Rwanda. On why the United Nations (and other international agencies) did not take further steps to prevent the genocide from occurring In the international community, no one anticipated the kind of horror that happened. It was only the only close observers that the genocide will certainly happen. The messages (that is, the warnings) remained unclear for the international agencies including UN. In a report headed by Howard Adelman et al, the vague messages are found in four areas: â€Å"contradictions in the international system; the UN structure; attitude of senior officials towards messengers and inadequacies in the message sent; and interference.†[20] UN’s principle in neutrality when it comes to information gathering isn’t necessarily applicable it times when international peace and security is under serious threat. This prevented the UN to arm itself with the capacity to collect and analyze information, which are vital when it comes to conflict management, during the tensions in Rwanda. [21] Another factor that caused UN’s failure in conflict management in Rwanda is that it is trapped between disinterested nations, Tanzania and US. These nations, especially US, showed no intentions to share its collected and analyzed (a result of CIA’s ‘desk-analysis’) information to UN.[22] The structure of the UN gives power to the Secretary General to give permission to UNAMIR for an immediate action to intervene in the plot for genocide in order to prevent it from happening. However, this power is not maximized in the case of Rwanda. One reason is that UN lacks staff. (Rwanda is only monitored by one person.) However, the deeper reason lies in the restructuring of the Secretariat since 1990. It is here where UN lost its capacity to collect vital information that can be analyzed and used as basis for making contingency plans. The distribution of the Secretary-General of his responsibilities to other agencies and departments also left the DPA, which should play an essential part in conflict management, lacking in logistics to carry out the task.[23] Another area that prevented the UN to take further actions is the messengers. The agencies that are associated with UN are reluctant to divulge information. That is to say, they are suspicious as to how the political and military information will be used. One thing more is the propaganda that the Hutu-dominated mass media spread. This made many, including members of UN, suspicious of the circulating information. Even the UN Secretary-General realized the disadvantage of not having the mass media on UN’s side. Mass media might have been played an important source for information. As mentioned, UN did not expect the magnitude of the event that happened. First, just because genocide is rare, the UN concluded that it will not happen at that time in Rwanda. Second, it is confident in the Tsutsis, blind to the fact that these people are also miscalculating the conditions around them. (The Tsutsis also did not expect that the rest of the world will walk out from Rwanda the moment the Hutu extremists (militia, armed forces of the government and even civilians) tries to erase them from the face of their own country.[24] There are other factors that prevented UN from thinking clearly and thereby also preventing it from acting accordingly. First, the UN is completely confident of the Arusha Peace Agreement. Second, their sense of judgment was clouded by its past experience in Somalia. Before the genocide broke out, the situation in Rwanda is peripheral compared to many other global issues that the UN is paying attention to.[25] The Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights and other human rights agencies, as well as the RPF used the word genocide in the reports they made to UN. However, the ambiguity of the definition of genocide also created confusion on the messages conveyed to UN.[26] Another thing is that the UN seems to not learn from what happened in Burundi just six months before the Rwanda Genocide happened – around 50,000 to 100,000 people were killed. Rather than considered as a political conflict, the conflict between the Hutus and the Tsutsis were considered only as a continuing ancient feud.[27] Conclusion and Recommendation Clearly, the United Nations failed in conflict management in Rwanda. This is because it lacks the vital factors in order to carry out the task. The UN sent UNAMIR to ensure peace in Rwanda. UN becomes too confident that no genocide will occur. The UN had received warnings about the Hutu-planned genocide, but ignored it because of a complex web of factors. In some of the situations, UN is caught between states, which are members of UN, which has their own motives regarding the situation. If examined, UN failed in information gathering that is very important in conflict management. The UN should reassess its structure in order to make collecting information and making in-depth analysis more efficient. (Remember that UN lost most of these capacities when it restructured its Secretariat.) This is in connection to the Rwanda Report’s recommendation that the UN should improve its early warning capacity. And this can only be done through improving its coordination with various institutions. As suggested by the Report, the UN should improve its capacity â€Å"to analyze and respond to information about possible conflicts, and its operational capability for preventive action†. In this context, the report suggests that â€Å"further enhancement of the cooperation between different Secretariat departments, UNSECOORD programmes and agencies and outside actors, including regional and subregional organizations NGOs and the academic world, is essential.†

Timed essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Timed - Essay Example As a function of this, the needs and requirements that this particular demographic has with respect to the website they visit are inherently different as compared to needs and requirements that other demographics may have. Due to this fact, it is necessary for website developers to be cognizant of this differential and seek to promote a level of recognition that engages these differences and promotes understanding and development in terms of accessibility issues and improving the web experience for individuals within this particular demographic. As a function of this, the following analysis will seek to provide a brief and summary discussion of some of the tactics they can be utilized and how they would benefit the overall quality of life and web experience of individuals within the aforementioned demographic. It is the hope of this particular author that such a level of discussion will not only be beneficial in encouraging web developers to consider these facets but to employ them w ith respect to websites that are more and more likely to be visited by individuals representing an older demographic. One major consideration that can and should be leveraged has to do with the native platforms that web developers consider with respect to web users that are 65 years of age and older. For instance, web users that are 65 years of age and older tend not to use Android, iOS, and other platforms that are familiar with individuals from different demographic groups (Gencer, 2012). Naturally, this should not dictate that web developers should not be cognizant of the fact that the older demographic may in fact use platforms other than a PC or laptop. Yet, studies with respect to this indicate that web browsing is most commonly conducted via a traditional web browser utilized on a PC computer; at least for this particular demographic group. With this in mind, websites that are specifically focused towards individual within this particular demographic need to

Food Safety Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Food Safety Management - Essay Example Hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) has emerged as a popular system of safety management and has become pivotal to securing the safety of the food supply and battle against the escalation of food borne disease.(Taylor and Taylor 2004).However as the instance of the Potter Foods example shows that small and medium sized businesses have found the entire process a "bureaucratic nightmare", and find the whole implementation of the HACCP complex and barriers.(Taylor and Taylor 2004).The system has its origins in the first US manned space Programme (Taylor and Taylor 2004 citing Buchanan 1990) and today it is "an operation specific system of preventative control, which identifies, evaluates and controls hazards of significance to food safety". On the facts we have been told that Potter foods has to as a matter of code of practice implement a food safety management system based on the Codex HACCP Principles with in a time frame of 2 years. It has been required that such a plan must cover all microbiological, chemical and physical hazards that might arise from the raw materials used, covering the entire of the manufacturing process, right up to the point of handover to the Customer. It was also specified that any support programmes, with the prerequisites must be effectively implemented with proper result.At this point I would suggest that such documentation must be completed upon a product-by-product basis and my project plan suggests that suitably qualified personnel should be employed to advance this process. Summary of the problem From the case study it is possible to glean that Potter's Foods being a medium-sized manufacturer of chilled ready meals based in the north of England has three large factory buildings dealing with bakery and party food items which are called Bakery, Chilled and Party .We have been told that the seasoning room and the raw material distribution centre are located in the same store and that the Company uses its own transport for work in progress foods or raw materials however it has not been mentioned that the distribution centre or its transport have proper refrigeration as this is very important for HACCP implementation and could be major reason for the foreign body complaints Potter Foods are facing. In the drawing up of the project plan it is pertinent to note that Potter Foods has to keep up its marketing edge as a flexible manufacturer, with low cost production and prompt delivery and at the same time utilise and keep up the customer confidence. It has also been mentioned that Party is an old building and may not be conducive to the HACCP implementation. There is a problem of taking action against suppliers for defective and unsafe food as it has been said that the raw materials purchased have little paper work into them. As mentioned before Potter's foods are having trouble with microbiological counts and poor equipment maintenance and there is consultation at an organised level with in the technical managers and directors. It has been stated that there is a large amount of wastage due to changes in raw materials suppliers and that the timing of the cooked foods and their temperatures is not adjusted for safety. There is also another danger as it has been stated

Commencement address Essay Example for Free

Commencement address Essay Miltary intervention in a Lesser Deveoped Country as defined by this writer is a deliberate entry by an armed regime, into a country with a low standard of living, and a undeveloped work base. Fifteen years ago the United States intervened into a lesser developed country and deployed their troops into the Gulf War. Back then General Schwarkopf was a national idol and boasted to the media along with the masses, We could have traded equipment with the Iraqis and still won. The troops returned from the Gulf to a heroes welcome, but times have changed. Today, as Journalists Don M. Snider, and Gayle L. Watkins puts it, there are many indications that the result is an Army quite unlike the victor of the Gulf War battles. It is instead an Army of decreasing effectiveness, one which suffers from a weakening relationship with the American public and, of more concern, with its own members. Â   Once again quoting both journalists, The Army that won the battles of the Gulf War in 1991 was on of the most professional ever fielded by America. So what are todays unique features of New Military Professionalism? To answer this question we have to back fourteen years, and as a case study, look at Africa. To quote the Civil-Military Relations in Post-independent Africa: South African Defence Review No3, Huntington gives considerable attention to the question of how civilian supremacy over armed forces might be assured. He begins by making a conceptual distinction between what he calls objective and subjective control. In the former, the officer corps is disciplined by its own professionalism, the most important constituent involving service to the community. Â   He concludes, that the more professional an army, the less of a threat it would pose this would coincide with the ideology of such countries as the United Kingdom, Scandinavia, the USA etc. So what are the unique features of New Military Professionalism? The answer is that the government should render the military dull, and unbiased. A highly trained, and mentally conditioned soldier will carry out any order his government dictates. To once again quote the Civil-Military Relations in Post-independent Africa: South African Defence Review No 3: *Â   break up the officer corps into competing groups *Â   establish political armies and special military units *Â   infiltrate the armed services with parallel political chains of command*Â   and by indoctrination, covert surveillance and close party supervision. This representation substantiates that military regiments will remain loyal to government command. The next inquiry that one might pose, Are military regimes successful in the political arena, and what are their objectives? You dont have to be a brain surgeon to realize that in lesser developed countries military regimes with out a doubt come out on top. In most third world countries a soldiers loyalty is bought and paid for, through money, privileges, and perks. In some countries high ranking soldiers are seduced into becoming a part of elites organizations. You must keep in mind that the majority of these recruits have never ever seen the other side of life- the priviledged side. Its not surprising that these impressionable few can be manipulated into blind allegiance to the ruling class. One can only hope that one day all this talk about military intervention will be a thing of the past. Lets contemplate on this notion. Is military intervention and war in a global sense on the decline? According to Gregg Easterbrook, from The New Republic, published May 30, 2005 pp. 18-21, it is. Easterbrook says that in the past fifteen years war has been on the down side. According to his findings the media has been manipulating us with horrific scenes of bombing and bloodshed. Due largely to the fact that today we now have 24 hour cable news channels, along with the world wide internet. People today even have cameras built into their phones. In his discourse he conveys that being killed because of war is the lowest its ever been. According to the statistics, The University of Maryland studies, find the number of wars and armed conflicts worldwide peaked in 1991 at 51, which may represent the most wars happening simultaneously at any point in history. Â   This would allude to the fact that war in a universal sense is half as it was fifteen years ago. The media has been filling our heads with falsities, the truth of the matter is that the majority of the population would rather watch a car bomb going off in some third world country as apposed to watching a report on flowers at our local botanical garden. Its sad but true, its the same mindset as when youre on the freeway and theres a car wreck: everyone slows down to see if someones been killed- its in our nature. Another great statistic is that worldwide military spending is lowering as well. The Center for Defence Information, a nonpartisan Washington research organization, states: in current dollars, annual global military spending peaked in 1985, at $1. 3 trillion, and has been falling since, to slightly over $1 trillion in 2004. Â   This magnificent reality once again has not been brought to light by news reports. These news stations would have you believe that the world is on the verge of mass destruction. There are only a few nations that are still increasing their military spending, one that poses no surprise is the United States; America accounts for 44 percent of global military spending. With the U. S. reshuffling funds to put towards combating terrorist groups, and peace keeping endeavors, they will wind up spending more on guns and miitary recruits than the rest of the world combined. The exact opposite holds true for many of the poorer countries, which is great, because the less money that goes towards guns can go into feeding starving bellies. So why is war becoming an archaic ideology? The first factor comes to no suprise, without a doubt its the end of the cold war. Due to this wonderful fact, tensions in an international manner have loosened, along with U. S. and Soviet support of proxy armies in lesser developed countries. There is also evidence that international arms dealings are slowly becoming a thing of the past. This reality could possibly result in lesser developed countries wanting peace, instead of war. Unfortunately you have to take the good with the bad. In an article entitiled The Syrian Dilemma, the writer alludes to the notion that if Syria is forced to leave Lebanon there could be a chance of Civil War; another Iraq, if you will. To quote the writer, The Baathist order has lost all legitimacy, sunk as it is in the most cancerous corruption and abuse of law and human right. To sum things up, military intervention, political objectives, lesser developed countries, military professionalism, and the decline of war is a perplexed concept, in other words, its not an exact science. Even President George Bush is vague on this subject. In a 2002 speech he gave to the graduating class at the U. S. Military Academy at West Point, he summarized, We will extend the peace by encouraging free and open societies on every continent. Â   To wind things up, I guess all we can do is stick our fingers in the dike and pray. References Bush, George W. Commencement address. U. S. Military Academy. West Point, NY. June 2002 Civil-Military Relations in Post-independent Africa: South African Defence Review No3 from World Wide Web: http://www. iss. co. za/Pubs/ASR/SADR3/Baynham. html Easterbrook, Gregg (2003). The End of War? from The New Republic, May 30, 2003 pp. 18-21 Hirst, David (2005). The Syrian Dilemma. from The Nation, May 2, 2005 pp. 20-24 Snider, Don M. , Watkins, Gayle L (2002) The Future of Army Professionalism: A need For Renewal and Redefination. Journal excerpt, Vol. 30, 2000 The Center for Defence (2004) The University of Maryland (2004)

Directing a Scene from Act 3 of the The Crucible by Arthur Miller :: Essay on The Crucible

I will be directing a scene from Act 3, of the play The Crucible by Arthur Miller. The Crucible - Hello, my name is ...................................., and today I will be directing a scene from Act 3, of the play 'The Crucible' by Arthur Miller. Act 3 is probably the most interesting and important acts of the play, and I'm looking forward to writing it in the way I perceive it. The scene I've chosen is from when the girls enter the court room, to when Proctor says he beleives Abigail a murderer. I feel this scene is full of tension, and many different twists which will make it fun to plan and direct. The scene starts with Cheever entering the court with Sussanna Walcott, Mercy Lewis, Betty Parris and Abigail Williams. They are wearing dark grey dresses, slightly worn, with white aprons and hats. This is to show how Puritan ways were, as they beleived in wearing dull colurs to show their loyalty to God, and to show that they will not 'party' as they did not like anything 'out of the ordinary' and didn't even celebrate Christmas. The girls look solemn, and look very much like 'children'. They will walk in with slight puzzlement on their faces to show they do not know why they have been summoned, but Abigails face will twitch slightly when she sees Proctor. Abigail loves Proctor, and wonders why he is here. She had once said to him 'John - I am waitin' for you every night' meaning she desires him, and wishes him no harm. The first line is said by Cheever. 'Ruth Putnam's not in the court, sir, nor the other children' he says as he wzlks up to Danforth, leaving the girls behind him. He doesn't want to be near the girls,as everyone, including him, fear them. They have power, and can accuse him of being involved in witchcraft if he does anything they do not like. Danforth then walks up to them, and instructs them to 'sit you down children.' He has a sense of authority in his voice and says 'children' because they are very precious and pure to him, but as we've seen in Act 1, Abigail is not a child. She resents it when people call her that, especially Proctor, and replies 'how do you call me a child' showing her anger and frustration of the label. However, Abigail will sit down as commanded and will not flinch because Danforth is of high superior, and holds her life in his hands. The girls sit on the left side of the room, furthest from the door, so

I Didnt Do It

Case Study 1. What are the challenges facing L’Oreal management? 2. Make a list of all the functionalities of [email  protected] described in the video. What kind of a knowledge management system is [email  protected]? 3. Why did L’Oreal say it chose the SharePoint platform? 4. What do you think are the ultimate benefits of [email  protected] for L’Oreal? 5. What might be some limitations of SharePoint in this application? 1. L’Oreal is a large-sized and international enterprise with many branches all over the world, making it difficult to communicate immediately with other employees around the world as well as share information.It is important to have good mutual communication between each department. In order to overcome the obstacles of being in different places, they need a secure and instant knowledge management system such as [email  protected] 2. It is a powerful information system with various functions such as search engine and discussion forums which allows people to have control over information according to their needs and organizational roles to make management more efficient. 3. Share point helps people reach the information easy and quick. It also makes searching information within a huge database efficient.Moreover, the system can combine with Microsoft Word, Excel, and Power Point. It can also be modified via email. It is a user-friendly system. 4. I think that the ultimate benefits of [email  protected] for L’Oreal are increasing the efficiency of information delivery, providing a safe platform to manage the database, and improving the searching tool. 5. Some software developers indicated SharePoint is too complex to be developed. In addition, its structure is different from other web based applications. Week Six Case Study – Case 1: L’Oreal Knowledge Management Using Microsoft SharePoint 1.What are the challenges facing L’Oreal management? L’Oreal, founded in 1907, is wo rld’s largest cosmetic and beauty company selling globally more than 500 brands. L’Oreal has five worldwide research and development centers spread over France, United States, Japan and China. To link everyone of them on the same platform of information is a difficult task. The intranet for this division must support thousands of researchers working in France, the United States, Japan and China. The intranet is required to support professional applications as well as databases on subjects including biology, patents, hair color and laboratory security.In such a vast network its difficult for teams to communicate. Team members lose interest in commercial activity when they consume more energy in communication. To overcome these hurdles and to manage its largest internet initiative L’Oreal chose SharePoint Portal Server. 2. Make a list of all the functionalities of [email  protected] described in the video. What kind of knowledge management system is [email  pr otected]? * Microsoft SharePoint products and technologies include browser based collaboration and a document management platform.These can be used to host web sites that access shared work spaces and documents, as well as specialized applications like wikis and blogs from a browser. * Users are allowed to manipulate proprietary controls or pieces of content called web parts to creat or modify sites. * The MS SharePoint is a premier collaboration server and a powerful platform that allows to work several persons on same set of documents together. * It is targeted as a colaberated work space and a tool for management and automation of business processes. In short this is a collabration of processes and people.

The Nuremberg Trials

Professor Henry King (2003) declared that, â€Å"there is no greater challenge currently confronting the international community than that of defining the scope of international human rights.† And rightly so, as we observe the present day atrocities committed all over the world as well as how the progression of international law has developed systems to adjudicate on these controversial matters. One of the most pioneering landmark cases in international law is the Nuremberg War Trials. Along with its significance, perhaps, it is also one of the most debatable. Judge Charles E. Wyzanski, Jr. (1946) wrote: â€Å"to those who support the trial it promises the first effective recognition of a world law for the punishment of malefactors who start wars or conduct them in bestial fashion† (p.66). On the other hand, Wyzanski argues that, â€Å"to the adverse critics the trial appears in many aspects a negation of principles which they regard as the heart of any system of justice under law.† Such a chasm in opinion created several theoretically relevant points in analyzing the history of international criminal law. It is often said that history is written by the victors. The United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and France, victors of the 1939-1945 World War II, organized these trials to implead the Nazi leaders for â€Å"aggressive acts and war crimes.† About six million Jews and nearly five million other Europeans were murdered en masse in a phenomenon called the Holocaust. This is often benchmarked by international organizations as one of the first acts of genocide. This paper aims to:   discuss the international crimes indicted in the Nuremberg Trials, describe the judgment passed on the Nazi defendants, present opposing views and controversies on the matter, and analyze the significance of the Nuremberg Trials in comparison to the current criminal justice system. Nuremberg Tribunal On August 8, 1945, the representatives of the four Allied powers formally adopted The Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of Major War Criminals of the European Axis, and Establishing the Charter of the International Military Tribunal (IMT). Two months after, this Agreement and the IMT Charter became the legal basis for the indictment of the Nazi leaders on the four counts discussed below. Nuremberg Principles: the Four Counts of Indictment Four Counts of Indictment were the basis of the charge against the Nationalsozialistische Deitsche Arbeiterpartei (Nazi party) leadership by the International Military Tribunal. These Counts include: conspiracy to commit aggressive war, crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. Critics of the Nuremberg Trials maintain that these Counts were in the nature of an ex post facto law, or one that was not a criminal act when it was first committed, yet became punishable later on by statute or legislation (Wyzanski, 1946). After all, one of the most elementary legal principles is one that holds: nullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege — there is no crime where there is no law punishing such. Supporters of the Nuremberg Trials contend that international law, natural law and civil law jurisdictions adhere to the agreements between states and are compelled to adopt the internationally recognized standards, including the doctrines enshrined in the Nuremberg Trials. Count 1: Conspiracy Conspiracy, commonly stated as, â€Å"the act of one is the act of all,† or the collusion of two or more people in the commission of an offense, was established as an additional and separate substantive offense from Counts One to Three. To assert conspiracy is to define that there is a wrong done when, acting together for an unlawful end, he who joins in that action incurs liability not only for the act planned, or participated in, or could reasonably be foreseen to happen, but also for every single act that his co-conspirators committed. For instance, Julius Streicher was found guilty by the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg for direct incitement and encouraging the commission of war crimes in the following: â€Å"†¦a punitive expedition must come against the Jews in Russia. A punitive expedition which will provide the same fate for them that every murderer and criminal must expect. Death sentence and execution. The Jews in Russia must be killed. They must be exterminated root and branch (Schabas, 2000, p. 278-279).† Wyzanski (1946) asks: â€Å"what is the basis for asserting such a broad and substantive crime in international law? Aside from the notion being new, is it not fundamentally unjust?† He reasons that a trial, when used as propaganda, is to debase justice. This is one of the strongest arguments posited by the critics of the Nuremberg Trials. Count 2: Crimes Against Peace Germany was a party to nine international treaties that condemn the plotting and waging of wars of aggression (the type where a state is the instigator of the war, and not merely in defense of national security). The Geneva protocol declared wars of aggression as international crimes — not merely uncivilized ways of waging war but also the waging in any way of uncivilized wars (Wyzanski, 1946). Count 3: War Crimes War crimes are in violation of the rules on warfare defined in international conventions, to which Germany was a party. This systematic course of conduct toward both civilians and combatants, excessive destruction of territories, with clear knowledge of the defendants, was deemed to be punishable, according to the 1946 article by Charles E. Wyzanski, Jr. It is aggression itself that was criminalized. This Count was the most criticized for being retroactive legislation since the history of warfare has not absolved the organizers of the Nuremberg International Military Tribunal from their own acts of warfare in their respective colonies. The Allied Forces (United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and France) were also known for committing war time atrocities in their own jurisdictions but critics point out that only the Nazis were held to account for their wartime liabilities. Other aggressive wars prior to World War II were not punished by international tribunals prior to the one constituted at Nuremberg. Count 4: Crimes against Humanity The horrors of Auschwitz and other parts of Germany and Europe where Jews, Poles and Gypsies were massacred in cold blood were defined as crimes against humanity, as described in the opening address to the Nuremberg Trials by US Supreme Court Justice Robert H. Jackson (King, 2003). Despite the innocence of the civilians, they were subject to various atrocities ordered by the Nazi leadership: deliberate and systematic genocide of racial and national groups of certain occupied territories, as charged in the case of France et al. v. Goering et al., 22 IMT 203 (1946) as cited by William Schabas (pp. 37-38). Murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population, before or during the war, or persecutions on political, racial or religious grounds in connection with any crime within the jurisdiction of the International Tribunal, enumerated the crimes falling under the definition of â€Å"crimes against humanity† submitted by the American delegation to the Charter of the International Military Tribunal that heard the Nuremberg Trials (Schabas, 2000, p.36). Nuremberg Judgment Nazi defendants Bormann, Goering, von Ribbentrop, and Jodl among others, were sentenced to death by hanging. On October 16, 1946, ten of them were hanged while Goering committed suicide. Bormann was tried in absentia prior to that while Hess, Doenitz, and five others were awarded ten years to life imprisonment in Spandau Prison, Berlin. 185 defendants were tried subsequently by US judges, including Nazi Party officials, judges, business executives, and doctors. Biographical Sketch From November 20, 1945 until October 1, 1946, the Nuremberg Palace of Justice in Nuremberg City, Germany became the host of a series of trials fraught with contentious debates. These trials before the International Military Tribunal adjudicated on war crimes. The most prominent was the first trial which prosecuted 24 of the top Nazi Germany (Nationalsozialistische Deitsche Arbeiterpartei) leadership in the realms of politics, economy and military. Of the 23 were originally charged, 12 were meted out death sentences but only 10 were imposed. Even organizations involved fell under the penumbra of these war crimes (Wyzanski, 1964). Applicable Historical Theory Historical theories birthed by the Nuremberg trials include international law concepts, the formation of a tribunal, and responses to the defenses invoked by the accused. United Nations member States adopted the four counts of indictment as definitions of internationally punishable acts. These theories were further codified in the Charter of the IMT which acquired jurisdiction over States that ratified the Agreement. Some defenses rooted in customary law were raised: head of State immunity; superior orders; and tu quoque (the adversary committed similar atrocities). Of these, the IMT at Nuremberg denied the defense of head of State immunity because it was formally provided in the Charter that â€Å"constitutionally responsible rulers, public officials or private individuals† are liable. The defense of superior orders was also excluded by the IMT to dispel ambiguities. The Nuremberg Trials underscored the moral duty of citizens to disobey inhumane orders that contravene natural law principles of justice. However, the defense of tu quoque was glossed over at Nuremberg since the World War II behavior of the Allied powers would render the legal justifications of the IMT vulnerable to attack (Schabas, 2000, pp. 314-342). Historical Theory In Comparison to Our Current Criminal Justice System The United Nations General Assembly Economic and Social Council created an ad hoc committee to draft a convention on the crime of genocide. In this convention, they resolved to formulate Nuremberg Principles into the provisions. Several UN member States raised the ideological angle in linking genocide to â€Å"race theories† like Fascism-Nazism. Thus, the Nuremberg principles were adopted in the preamble, by its analogy to punishing war criminals for similar acts of genocide (Schabas, 2000, p. 62-64). Before the April 1994 genocide in Rwanda, the hate-mongering Radio Mille Collines was broadcasting messages to incite the population to commit massacres of the Tutsi   and some Hutu civilians (Schabas, 2000, p.279). There is a chilling similarity to the situation of Nazi Germany where the Nuremberg court found such direct incitement punishable for direct incitement of acts of genocide, hatred, and violence which led to the Jewish Holocaust, among others. The criminal justice system of today and that of the Nuremberg era are both united in recognizing the criminal nature of hate propaganda and adopting measures to curb incitements to violence by adjudicating against the perpetrators. The US war on Iraq also raises delicate issues that can be attributable to the Nuremberg precedent. The historical theories and defenses raised would pose a strong ideological challenge to the criminality of certain acts that States commit against other States in the guise of protecting national security and the hegemonic concepts of development. While the US-Iraq war is said to be a fluid legal arena, the IMT of Nuremberg may have much to say on the matter. Conclusion Sixty two years ago until the present, the precedent set by the Nuremberg Trials is still being used as the rallying point for other analogous crimes. The four counts of indictment were codified into a formal Agreement along with the Charter for the IMT. Defenses normally recognized under customary law were denied by express provision of the Charter. Although the criminalization of these counts was still imperfect, provoking legal contentions even, the millions of lives lost during the war deserve the chance to have the scales of justice tilted in their favor. Through the constantly evolving international legal theories, one can only hope that humanity would be able to devise ways to put an end to the abject horror of war. References Schabas, W. (2000). Genocide in International Law: The Crimes of Crimes. Cambridge:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cambridge University Press. King, Henry. (2003, May 1). Robert Jackson and International Human Rights. Retrieved   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   November 20, 2007, from http://www.roberthjackson.org/Man/theman2-6-6/ Wyzanski, C. E., Jr. (1946, April). Nuremberg–A Fair Trial? Dangerous Precedent. The Atlantic Monthly, Volume 177, No. 4, 66-70. The Nuremberg Trials A brief look at the Nuremberg Trials and some of the people involved. It steps upon the problems leading to the start of the trials including three of the doctors, three of the experiments performed on prisoners, and the judgment of three people involved with carrying out the vulgar experiments. Also included are three people who decided to commit suicide instead of facing certain death after going before a jury. The three people who committed suicide were also three of the biggest people involved in building the Nazi party in Germany and its surrounding areas. The Nuremberg Trials, a glimpse into the Nazis’ that committed crimes during WWII, exposes the lives destroyed, and the precedents set forth from this new category of crime, the war criminal. (Brown, 1995) The trials included 24 major political and military leaders who committed crimes against humanity and war crimes, (Congress, 2009) and did so without remorse or emotion for what their victims were going through. It was not until 1945 when the trials began that the full extent of what was truly taking place in the concentration camps and in the extermination camps (death camps) were revealed. The truth about medical experiments, atrocities, crimes against humanity, and membership in a criminal organization were grounds for the Nuremberg trials to commence and would become the precedents for all war crimes that would follow. (Congress, 2009) War crimes are defined as violations of the laws in which a person’s given rights are compromised. In broadest terms, a war crime is any act of violence by military personnel that exceeds the rules of war. To an extent, the concentration camps were guilty of all violations listed above and it was because of the crimes committed by the leaders in the camps that the Nuremberg trials became a necessity in order to make an example out of the people who committed the crimes. An argument that can be made about the Nuremberg trials is the fact that the crimes against humanity were made, but there was no precedent for war crimes before these trials started. It wasn’t until after the trials that the term crimes against humanity and war crimes became standard in the practice of law in all types of war entanglements. The International Military Tribunal (IMT) consisted of four allied powers including: Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States and were responsible for the outcome of every person being tried in the Nuremberg trials. (Cowell, 1995) â€Å"The lasting contribution of Nuremberg was to make individuals responsible,† for their genocidal contributions to the war. (Cowell, 1995) By the end of the Nuremberg trials in 1946, there were 12 people convicted and sentenced to death, three were acquitted, and seven were sentenced to prison terms of 10 years to life. Unfortunately, Hitler, Goebbels, and Himmler committed suicide before they could be tried for the crimes they committed. Adolf Hitler was appointed the chancellor of the Nazi party in 1933 and oversaw the murder of over 17 million civilians with an estimated six million Jews in what is known as the Holocaust, but Hitler took his life just days before the allied forces took Germany by force. (Farmer, 2007) Paul Joseph Goebbels was one of Hitler’s closest associates and took over the position of Chancellor of Germany for just one day after Hitler committed suicide. Goebbels committed suicide just a day before Germany was taken by allied forces. It was not until after Goebbels and his wife took their six children’s lives that they finally took their own lives. (Reich, 2009) Heinrich Himmler was the head of the Gestapo and the organizer of the mass murders of Jews in the extermination camps during Hitler’s reign and took poison to commit suicide after he was discovered wearing a disguise and fell into British hands after escaping capture in Germany. These are just a few key people in the genocide that happened in Germany during WWII and they decided to commit suicide rather than be prosecuted for the lives they destroyed. A few of the people involved in the Nuremberg trials included: Karl Brandt, Erhard Milch, and Oswald Pohl. Karl Brandt was the personal physician to Adolf Hitler and the commissioner for health and sanitation and was also the chief medical official of the German government during WWII. Brandt contributed to the experiments being performed on the inmates in the concentration camps and was sentenced to death and executed. Erhard Milch was a member of the Central Planning Board and had full power over the schedule that controlled the production and development of materials by forced labor during the war. He also assisted in the experiments being performed at the Dachau concentration camp in which high altitude and freezing experiments were conducted. (Congress, 2009) In the end, â€Å"Milch was acquitted of the charges concerning medical experiments and found guilty of charges concerning slave labor,† and sentenced to life in prison but was shortened to 15 years in 1951. Oswald Pohl was chief of the SS Wirtschafts und Verwaltungshauptamt (WVHA; Economic and Administrative Main Office) which took the place of several offices including Budget and Buildings and the Inspector of Concentration Camps. (College, 2003) In the end, Pohl received the death penalty for his involvement in the transportation of prisoners, murder, medical experiments, and his involvement in the mass executions of mostly Jews and other civilians. There were a couple of places in which the mass executions took place which included both concentration camps and extermination camps that were familiar with Hitler and the objectives he wanted to achieve during his reign during WWII. The camps included Auschwitz and Dachau which were places where experiments and death took place. Auschwitz was the place that mass murder became a daily routine after an experimental gassing was conducted in September of 1941 where 850 malnourished and ill prisoners entered gas chambers and never escaped the anguish they felt as they took their last breaths. Bulow, 2009) Dachau was another concentration camp where prisoners were mistreated and is more known for the brutal experiments that took place than executions in mass quantities like in Auschwitz. Just a few experiments that took place at the Dachau concentration camp that were brought out more clearly in the Nuremberg trials included: high altitude experiments, freezing experiments, and malaria e xperiments. (Congress, 2009) High altitude experiments were performed to test the limits of human endurance at high altitudes. The tests were performed in low pressure chambers where the pressure of 68,000 feet could be duplicated and measures, many died from this procedure and others suffered grave injury and ill treatment. The freezing experiments involved placing the subject in a tank of ice water for up to three hours without cloths or the victims were placed outside in freezing temperatures also without cloths to test the effects. After the victims were removed from the water or brought in from the cold, various methods of warming the victims up were tried, but the outcome was either death or the victims suffered severe pain and disability. The malaria experiment involved infecting healthy concentration camps with malaria bearing mosquitoes or by injecting the disease into victims from the mucous of the glands of mosquitoes. Most of the test subjects died or suffered from severe pain or disability. (Congress, 2009) In the end, the Nuremberg trials were justified because of the ways in which the Nazis’ treated the prisoners they turned into victims through the use of force and through sheer neglect. No man or woman should ever have had to endure what the prisoners of war during WWII endured. It was unconscionable what happened behind closed doors and the walls keeping the Nazis’ in control, but because of the Nuremberg trials, the truth came to be known about how relentless the Nazis’ were towards human life. A question is always asked in history classes, why does history need to be taught, and the answer is always: in order to avoid repeating the mistakes from the past. This was one of the worst times in history, and this paper is just a short excerpt to all the turmoil associated with Hitler’s ideals of the perfect world. References http://www.auschwitz.dk/Auschwitz.htm http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/Nuremberg_trials.html http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/Holocaust/nuremberg.html http://law.jrank.org/pages/2311/War-Crimes.html

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